14 Characteristics of Fascism: Umberto Eco on Ur-Fascism

Let’s try to define (or at least describe) fascism, shall we?

Fascism: “a populist political philosophy, movement, or regime (such as that of the Fascisti) that exalts nation and often race above the individual, that is associated with a centralized autocratic government headed by a dictatorial leader, and that is characterized by severe economic and social regimentation and by forcible suppression of opposition” (Merriam-Webster)

Notoriously difficult to define, Umberto Eco nevertheless highlighted 14 aspects of what he called “Ur-Fascism” (PDF):

1. Cult of Tradition – A syncretic belief in ancient truths, rejecting modern interpretations.
2. Rejection of Modernism – Viewing the Enlightenment and rationalism as the root of moral decline.
3. Cult of Action for Action’s Sake – Valuing action over reflection, leading to anti-intellectualism.
4. Disagreement is Treason – Suppressing dissent and critical thinking as threats to unity.
5. Fear of Difference – Exploiting xenophobia and racism to unify the in-group against outsiders.
6. Appeal to a Frustrated Middle Class – Mobilizing those feeling economically or socially displaced.
7. Obsession with a Plot – Promoting conspiracy theories to justify aggression against perceived enemies.
8. Enemies are Both Too Strong and Too Weak – Portraying adversaries as simultaneously formidable and feeble.
9. Pacifism is Trafficking with the Enemy – Viewing life as perpetual warfare, dismissing peace efforts as betrayal.
10. Contempt for the Weak – Glorifying strength and dismissing compassion as weakness.
11. Everybody is Educated to Become a Hero – Promoting a cult of death and martyrdom.
12. Machismo – Elevating aggressive masculinity and denigrating non-conforming sexual behaviors.
13. Selective Populism – Claiming to represent the unified will of the people, dismissing individual rights.
14. Newspeak – Employing an impoverished vocabulary to limit critical thought.

You can read the full essay via the PDF link above. But note that it was originallty published in the New York Review: https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1995/06/22/ur-fascism/.

For more on fascism, see:

• How Fascism Works: The Politics of Us and Them by Jason Stanley
• On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century by Timothy Snyder
• How to Spot a Fascist by Umberto Eco (includes the essay above, as well as two other essays by Eco)

Also check out this “The 10 tactics of fascism” video by Big Think and Jason Stanley: